Chapter 18: Archaeology, Archives and Museology

Introduction

The three topics, Archaeology, Archives and Museology discussed in this Chapter have one characteristic in common. They peep into the past and tell us the story of periods going back even to the prehistoric age. They are the embodiment of our heritage-the qualities, traditions, features of life that have been continued over many years and passed on from one generation to another. Also they are the indispensable source material for writing history.

Archaeology (“archio” derived from Greek archaios meaning anient) is the scientific study of the lives of early people based on the objects they left behind. Such objects are things made by man (artifactual materials or artifacts) and also the things he used (nonartifactual materials). They include buildings, tombs, artwork, tools, bones and pottery. Archaeological research is the chief method available for learning about societies that existed before the invention of writing, about 5,000 year ago. It also supplements our knowledge of ancient societies that left written records.

However, the perception about the nature of the discipline differs. In the USA, archaeology is considered a branch of anthropology, the scientific study of humanity and human culture. European archaeologists, on the other hand, think of their work as most closely related to the field of history. Still another view is that archaeology differs from history in that historians mainly study the lives of the people as recorded in written documents. The principal activities of archaeologists include preliminary field work, excavation and classification, dating and interpretation of materials collected.

Archives (derived from the Greek word archeion meaning a public office) are collections of historical information contained in recorded documents. Traditionally, archivers have an “official” connotation, because archival materials are the incidental by-products of official activities. They consist of the papers (or usually a selection from papers) which official authorities (in the case of the archives of the state and the central governments) drew up for the purposes of the conduct of their affairs, or which they used in conducting them. In most of the countries the general process of selecting, transferring and giving public access to the State’s archives is broadly governed by some acts. For example, in the United Kingdom there is the Public Records Ac, 1958. In India, there is an Archival Policy Resolution of the Government of India (December 11, 1972).

In 1993, the Public Records Act was passed by the Parliament “to regulate the management, administration and preservation of public records of the Central Government” and of its other agencies. However, in a broader sense, archives are not limited only to government papers. The collections of recorded documents generated by institutions and organisations outside the governments, private companies and even by individuals also fall into this category. On the other hand, collections of manuscripts (manuscript libraries), strictly speaking are not archives. Although the preprinted version of a document is a manuscript, traditionally, the term refers to any hand written document from ancient times until the introduction of printing in the 1400s. Nevertheless, collections of manuscripts are also invaluable source material for historians.

Museums are repositories of our cultural heritage and are meant for acquisition, conservation and preservation of historical, technical materials against decay and for their transmission to posterity as records of history. Museology is the scientific study relating to museums and their collections. As the sociological and educational role of museums has evolved, so also the types of museums have become more varied and imaginative – art museums, history museums which include archaeological museums, and science and trechnological museums.

The educational programmes in these areas are aimed at developing manpower to identify, study, conserve and preserve the national heritage for the posterity, be they archaeological objects, archival documents or museum specimens.

Archaeology

Archaeological education in the Indian Universities has for long been part of the courses in Ancient Indian History, Culture and Archaeology which are offered at the MA level. Annexure 1 gives a partial list of the universities offering the courses. The most comprehensive course in archaeology is offered by the Institute of Archaeology established by Archaeological Survey of India (24 Tilak Marg, New Delhi-110001). It grew out of the School of Archaeology:. Its two-year postgraduate diploma course, the only one of its kind, consists of theoretical and practical training in various branches of archaeology. The syllabus covers, among others, theory and methods in archaeology, applied science (elementary knowledge of geology, anthropology, chemistry, etc), pre-historic archaeology, protohistory, historical archaeology, art and iconography, architectute, epigraphy and numismatics, museology, preservation of archaeological monuments (including chemical preservation) and antiquities, and antiquarian laws.

In the final year students are required to do a dissertation or specialisation in one of the above mentioned branches. They also undergoe a special training in the branch selected for dissertation work. The essential qualification requirement is a Master’s degree in ancient and medieval Indian history or M.A in archaeology or M.Sc in anthropology with 55% marks. Students admitted to the course are entitled to a monthly stipend of Rs.1,500.00. Banaras Hindu Numismatics, open to M.A degree holders in Archaeology or Ancient Indian History and Culture.

The recently established Delhi Institute of Heritage Research and Management (18 A Satsang Vihar Marg, Qutub Institutional Area, New Delhi-110067), affiliated to Guru Govind Singh Indraprastha University, offers two courses of two-year duration in the area: (1) Master in Archaeology and Heritage Management, and Master in Conservation Preservation and Heritage Management. Eligibility: B.A/B.Sc degree with such subjects as history, archeology, chemistry, physics, zoology, botany, geology, art history, museology, BE, B.Arch, BTown Planning. The admission is based on the performance in an entrance test.

It also offers a Postgraduate Diploma in Archaeology and Heritage Management with a focus on conservation, preservation and management. The course is of one-year duration. Eligibility: M.A/M.Sc degree in History, Archaeology, Chemistry, Geology, Anthropology, and History, Museology or degree in BE/B.Arch/BTown Planning. Dr B R Ambedkar University (Agra) offers a Postgraduate Diploma in Heritage Management of one-year duration.

Archival Studies

There are very limited educational opportunities in archival studies. The School of Archival Studies of the National Archives of India (Janpath, New Delhi-110001) offers a one-year diploma which is open to postgraduates in history with at least one optional paper in modern Indian history from 1750 AD. Admission of non-sponsored candidates is made through an aptitude test followed by an interview. Five scholarships worth each Rs.800.00 per month are awarded to non-sponsored candidates. The course familiarizes students with basic techniques for conservation of records, photocopying and microfilming of records, and information retrieval systems.

Other courses in this area are: (1) Postgraduate Diploma in Archival Studies and Museology (one year) offered by Dr B R Ambedkar University (Agra), (2) Postgraduate Diploma in Archives Documentation and Management (one year) offered by Gandhigram Rural Institute (Gandhigram-624302, Tamil Nadu), (3) Postgraduate Diploma in Archival Science and Manuscriptology (one year) open to graduates with three years of experience offered by Osmania University (Hyderabad), (4) Diploma in Manuscriptology offered by Mysore University, (5) PG Diploma in Archives Keeping (part-time) – Annamalai University.

Museology

The National Museum Institute of History of Art, Conservation and Museology (Janpath, New Delhi-110011) is a unique museum university established in 1989 by the Department of Culture, Ministry of Human Resource Development and is an integral part of the National Musseum. It has been accorded the deemed university status in 1989. Its predecessor, the Institute of History of Art, Conservation and Museology established in 1983 located in the Modern Gallery of Art, New Delhi, introduced diploma and postgraduate diploma in History of Art, Conservation and Museology. The National Museum Institute now offers M.A and PhD courses in three disciplines, viz., History of Art, Conservation and Restoration of Works of Art, and Museology. A brief account of the courses follows:

1.  M.A (History of Art): Eligibility: B.A in History of Art, Fine Arts, History, Archaeology, Sociology, Anthropology, Philosophy, Comparative Aesthetics, Literature, Classical Languages.

2.  PhD (History of Art): Eligibility: Master’s degree in History of Art, Fine Arts, Ancient Indian History and Culture, Archaeology, Comparative literature/aesthetics or M. Phil degree.

3.  M.A (Conservation and Restoration of Works of Art): Eligibility: B.Sc with Chemistry or Physics as one of the main subjects or BFA.

4.  PhD (Conservation and Restoration of Works of Art): Eligibility: Master’s degree in the subject or M.Sc in Chemistry or Physics with experience in the relevant field or M.Phil degree. Candidates with M.Sc degree will have to qualify in a conservation course of the Institute.

5.  M.A (Museology): Eligibility: B.A in any branch of humanities and social sciences including Fine Arts and Archaeology, or Diploma in Museology. Postgraduate degree holders in humanities and social sciences are also eligible.

6.  PhD (Museology): Eligibility: M.A in Museology, Museum Studies or equivalent qualification.

Good academic record with 55% and above marks at graduate and postgraduate level examination is essential for all M.A and PhD courses. Knowledge of one classical or foreign language such as Sanskrit, Persian, Arabic, Greek, Latin, German, French and Italian is desirable. Admission to Master’s degree programme is made on the basis of performance in an admission test followed by interview. The Institute also offers short-term part-time courses in art appreciation and Indian art and culture. No formal degree is required for the courses.

It may be mentioned here that other than the National Museum Institute, several other universities also offer M.A and M.Fa in History of Art. (See Annexure 2)

Other university courses in the subjects are: (1) M.A in Museology-Banaras Hindu University (Eligibility: M.A in History, Ancient Indian History and Culture, Sanskrit, History of Art), (2) M.A (Fine) in Museology-The M S University (Baroda), (3) M.A in Indology and Museology-Barkatullah Vishwavidyalay (Bhopal), (4) M.Sc (Technology) Museum Studies-Birla Institute of Technology and Science, (Pilani); (5) Diploma in Museology-Calcutta University; (6) Postgraduate Diploma in Archival Studies and Museology-Dr B R Ambedkar University (Agra), and (7) PG Diploma in Museology-The Salar Jung Museum, (Hyderabad) in collaboration with Osmania University, (8) M.A in Museology-Jiwaji University (Gwalior), and (9) PG Diploma in Museology-Vikram University.

Career Opportunities

Unlike several other professional disciplines, archaeology has not created vast employment opportunities. Nevertheless, it offers interesting career options to those who have a fascination for the past. The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) employs qualified archaeologists as Assistant Archaeologists. ASI was established in 1861 for maintenance, conservation and preservation of centrally protected monuments and archaeological sites in the country. Its most important task, however, is conducting archaeological explorations and excavations and architectural survey of monuments.

Assistant Archaeologists participate in all these activities. The State archaeological departments also employ archaeology degree holders as registration officers. They are responsible for registering the antiques which are known to be in procession of individuals. Archaeology degree holders also can get jobs in the tourism industry as tourist guides. Then, of course, there is the option for taking up teaching and research work after obtaining doctoral degrees.

Job opportunities in archives are also still limited. The major employer continues to be the National Archives of India (NAI) and the State Archives. NAI, known until independence as Imperial Record Department was established in 1891. It is the official custodian of all of Government of India non-current document records of permanent value. Among its activities are (i) making public records accessible to various government agencies and research scholars, (ii) preparing indexes of records to facilitate access, (iii) records management, (iv) conservation and maintenance or records, (v) rendering technical assistance to individuals and institutions in conservation of records.

Transmission of official records to NAI and provision of access to them by research scholars are broadly guided by the Archival Policy Resolution (1972), and the Public Records Act, 1993. Of late, several big industrial houses and public sector undertakings have started establishing archives for the preservation and maintenance of their own records. Hence job opportunities are gradually opening up in these establishments. Many archives and manuscript libraries, particularly in the USA have started using imaging and digitizing technology both for conservation and retrieval of their information contents. The technology has started arriving in India. Such modernization of archives of manuscript libraries would then need manpower conversant in both archival science and information technology.

However, conservation of art and heritage of the country which once used to be more of a hobby of the nouveau riche, has now become a good career option for competent persons. The emerging profession of conservationists takes care of art, artifacts and other architectural finds, and works of art kept in museums. There is now great awareness about the importance of conservation. A non-governmental organisation, Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage (INTACH) has been working to create such awareness. The Department of Culture, Ministry of Human Resource Development has established the National Research laboratory for Conservation of Cultural property at Lucknow. Its activities include conducting research in materials and methods of conservation, study of materials and technologies of art objects, training in conservation and rendering technical advice and assistance to museums and allied institutions.

Keeping in view the need for training conservationists, the demand for which is growing, albeit slowly, the National Museum Institute of History of Art, Conservation and Museology, as stated earlier, has introduced Master’s and Doctoral level programmes. With growing awareness about the need for conserving the national heritage the demand for manpower is likely to grow further. Art conservationists, in particular, have the option to practice the profession rendering their services to increasing number of individual art collectors.