Annexure 1: What Earth Sciences Are All About

Geology: As stated earlier geology may be defined simply as the study of earth and by this definition it includes practically all of the earth sciences. Traditionally geology has been divided into two major categories, viz., (1) Physical Geology – the study of materials that make up the earth and the forces that shape it and (2) Historical Geology – the study of the evolution of the earth and its life. Some of the branches are considered part of both physical and historical geology. A brief account of some of the important branches is given below.

Physical Geology: (1) Economic Geology – the study of coal, metals and materials useful to industry (2) Engineering Geology – geology as applied to design of structures and the light (3) Environmental Geology – the application of geologic principles to environmental problems (4) Geochemistry – the study of the substance in the earth and the chemical changes that they undergo over a period (5) Geophysics – the study of the interior of the earth, its magnetic and electrical properties and the way they transmit such energy as earthquake waves (6) Hydrology – the study of the movement and distribution of the earth’s waters (7) Mineralogy – the study of minerals (8) Oceanography – the study of oceans and life in the oceans (9) Petrology – the study of igneous metamorphic and sedimentary rocks (10) Planetology – the study of the chemical and physical properties of the terrestrial planets (11) Seismology – the study of earthquakes and their effects (12) Structural Geology – the study of positions and shapes of the rocks deep in the earth and process of their deformation.

(a)  Historical Geology: (1) Palaeoecology – the study of the relationship between prehistoric plants and animals and their surroundings (2) Palaeontology – the study of the ancient (fossil) life (3) Stratigraphy – the study of the origin and age of layered generally and sedimentary rocks.

(b)  Physical and historical Geology: (1) Geochronology – the study of geologic time (2) Geomorphology – the study of the surface of the earth (Landscapes) and their evolution (3) Glacial Geology – the study of the glaciers and the ways they alter the surface of the earth (4) Sedimentology: the study of the sediment and the ways it is deposited.

Oceanography: It is a study of the ocean and the life in the ocean. The ocean can be studied in the different ways and the science of oceanography includes a number of specialities. Some examples are (1) Biological Oceanography – the study of marine life (also marine biology) from microscopic bacteria to large marine mammals (2) Chemical Oceanography – the study of chemicals in sea water and the chemical reactions that take place in the ocean (3) Marine Geology – the study of the sediments in the surface features of the bottom of the ocean (4) Marine geophysics – the study of the deeper ocean crust (5) Ocean Engineering – the designing of oceanographic research tools And Developing Methods For Obtaining Minerals And Other Resources From The ocean (6) Physical Oceanography – the study of waves, tides and currents.

Geography: Geography is an exceedingly complex discipline that can be subdivided into a number of specialized components. It is also multidisciplinary in nature as it includes not only aspects of the physical and biological sciences but also the social sciences, especially political science and economics. There are two principal approaches to the study of geography – topical and systematic and regional. Topical geography is the study of the spatial organisation or locational distribution of a specific phenomenon and its relation to human presence. Regional geography, on the other hand, is concerned with a small area and compares that area with other areas. However, topical and regional geography are often studied in combination.

Geography may be grouped into two major categories – (a) Physical Geography and (b) Human (or social) Geography.

(a) Physical geography is concerned with the locations of such earth features as land, water and climate. The major subdivisions of it are: (1) Biogeography – the study of the distribution of the plant (plant geography) and animal (zoogeography) (2) Climatology – the study of the distribution of the climatic patterns and how climate changes and how it is effected by the human activity (3) Geomorphology – the study of landforms, or the earth’s relief features and the forces that change them.

(b) Human (or Social) Geography is the study of the changing spatial distribution of people and their activities and their interactions with the environment. The major subdivisions are: (1) Cultural Geography – the study of the distribution of cultural groups or of specific cultural traits such as religions, languages, rites and rituals (2) Economic Geography – the study of the location and distribution of such economic activities as mining, manufacturing and agriculture (3) Historical Geography – the study of the local or regional situation as existed in the past and how places and patterns of human activity have changed over time (4) Political Geography – the study of governmental units as observed on the landscape and also of such topics as changes in political boundaries and problems of political instability (5) Population Geography – the study of the patterns of population and the reason for change in those patterns (6) Social Geography – the study of social relationships between groups of people and how these relationships affect the place where people live and work (7) Urban Geography – the analytical study of the origin and growth of towns and cities as well as the spatial arrangement within them.